Glucocorticoids, a class of corticosteroids, are endogenous hormones with profound effects on the immune system and multiple organ systems. They suppress a variety of immune and inflammatory functions by inhibition of inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1, IL-2, IL-6, and TNF, inhibition of arachidonic acid metabolites including prostaglandins and leukotrienes, depletion of T-lymphocytes, and reduction of the expression of adhesion molecules on endothelial cells (P. J. Barnes, Clin. Sci., 1998, 94, pp. 557-572; P. J. Barnes et al., Trends Pharmacol. Sci., 1993, 14, pp. 436-441). In addition to these effects, glucocorticoids stimulate glucose production in the liver and catabolism of proteins, play a role in electrolyte and water balance, reduce calcium absorption, and inhibit osteoblast function.
The anti-inflammatory and immune suppressive activities of endogenous glucocorticoids have stimulated the development of synthetic glucocorticoid derivatives including dexamethasone, prednisone, and prednisolone (L. Parente, Glucocorticoids, N. J. Goulding and R. J. Flowers (eds.), Boston: Birkhauser, 2001, pp. 35-54). These have found wide use in the treatment of inflammatory, immune, and allergic disorders including rheumatic diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, juvenile arthritis, and ankylosing spondylitis, dermatological diseases including psoriasis and pemphigus, allergic disorders including allergic rhinitis, atopic dermatitis, and contact dermatitis, pulmonary conditions including asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and other immune and inflammatory diseases including Crohn disease, ulcerative colitis, systemic lupus erythematosus, autoimmune chronic active hepatitis, osteoarthritis, tendonitis, and bursitis (J. Toogood, Glucocorticoids, N. J. Goulding and R. J. Flowers (eds.), Boston: Birkhauser, 2001, pp. 161-174). They have also been used to help prevent rejection in organ transplantation.
Unfortunately, in addition to the desired therapeutic effects of glucocorticoids, their use is associated with a number of adverse side effects, some of which can be severe and life-threatening. These include alterations in fluid and electrolyte balance, edema, weight gain, hypertension, muscle weakness, development or aggravation of diabetes mellitus, and osteoporosis. Therefore, a compound that exhibited a reduced side effect profile while maintaining the potent anti-inflammatory effects would be particularly desirable, especially when treating a chronic disease.
The effects of glucocorticoids are mediated at the cellular level by the glucocorticoid receptor (R. H. Oakley and J. Cidlowski, Glucocorticoids, N. J. Goulding and R. J. Flowers (eds.), Boston: Birkhauser, 2001, pp. 55-80). The glucocorticoid receptor is a member of a class of structurally related intracellular receptors that when coupled with a ligand can function as a transcription factor that affects gene expression (R. M. Evans, Science, 1988, 240, pp. 889-895). Other members of the family of steroid receptors include the mineralocorticoid, progesterone, estrogen, and androgen receptors. In addition to the effects mentioned above for glucocorticoids, hormones that act on this receptor family have a profound influence on body homeostasis, mineral metabolism, the stress response, and development of sexual characteristics. Glucocorticoids, N. J. Goulding and R. J. Flowers (eds.), Boston: Birkhauser, 2001, is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety to better describe the state of the art.
A molecular mechanism which accounts for the beneficial anti-inflammatory effects and the undesired side effects has been proposed (e.g., S. Heck et al., EMBO J, 1994, 17, pp. 4087-4095; H. M. Reichardt et al., Cell, 1998, 93, pp. 531-541; F. Tronche et al., Curr. Opin. in Genetics and Dev., 1998, 8, pp. 532-538). Many of the metabolic and cardiovascular side effects are thought to be the result of a process called transactivation. In transactivation, the translocation of the ligand-bound glucocorticoid receptor to the nucleus is followed by binding to glucocorticoid response elements (GREs) in the promoter region of side effect-associated genes, for example, phosphoenolpyruvate carboxy kinase (PEPCK) in the case of increased glucose production. The result is an increased transcription rate of these genes which is believed to result, ultimately, in the observed side effects. The anti-inflammatory effects are thought to be due to a process called transrepression. In general, transrepression is a process independent of DNA binding that results from inhibition of NF-KB and AP-1-mediated pathways, leading to down regulation of many inflammatory and immune mediators. Additionally, it is believed that a number of the observed side effects may be due to the cross-reactivity of the currently available glucocorticoids with other steroid receptors, particularly the mineralocorticoid and progesterone receptors.
Thus, it may be possible to discover ligands for the glucocorticoid receptor that are highly selective and, upon binding, can dissociate the transactivation and transrepression pathways, providing therapeutic agents with a reduced side effect profile. Assay systems to determine effects on transactivation and transrepression have been described (e.g., C. M. Bamberger and H. M. Schulte, Eur. J. Clin. Invest., 2000, 30 (suppl. 3), pp. 6-9). Selectivity for the glucocorticoid receptor may be determined by comparing the binding affinity for this receptor with that of other steroid family receptors including those mentioned above.
Glucocorticoids also stimulate the production of glucose in the liver by a process called gluconeogenesis and it is believed that this process is mediated by transactivation events. Increased glucose production can exacerbate type II diabetes, therefore a compound that selectivity inhibited glucocorticoid mediated glucose production may have therapeutic utility in this indication (J. E. Freidman et al., J. Biol. Chem., 1997, 272, pp. 31475-31481).
Novel ligands for the glucocorticoid receptor have been described in the scientific and patent literature. For example, PCT International Publication No. WO 99/33786 discloses triphenylpropanamide compounds with potential use in treating inflammatory diseases. PCT International Publication No. WO 00/66522 describes non-steroidal compounds as selective modulators of the glucocorticoid receptor potentially useful in treating metabolic and inflammatory diseases. PCT International Publication No. WO 99/41256 describes tetracyclic modulators of the glucocorticoid receptor potentially useful in treating immune, autoimmune, and inflammatory diseases. U.S. Pat. No. 5,688,810 describes various non-steroidal compounds as modulators of glucocorticoid and other steroid receptors. PCT International Publication No. WO 99/63976 describes a non-steroidal, liver-selective glucocorticoid antagonist potentially useful in the treatment of diabetes. PCT International Publication No. WO 00/32584 discloses non-steroidal compounds having anti-inflammatory activity with dissociation between anti-inflammatory and metabolic effects. PCT International Publication No. WO 98/54159 describes non-steroidal cyclically substituted acylanilides with mixed gestagen and androgen activity. U.S. Pat. No. 4,880,839 describes acylanilides having progestational activity and EP 253503 discloses acylanilides with antiandrogenic properties. PCT International Publication No. WO 97/27852 describes amides that are inhibitors of farnesyl-protein transferase.
A. E. Baydar et al., Pest. Sci., 1988, 23(3), pp. 231-246 (hereinafter “Baydar et al.”), discloses certain compounds for use as pesticides. Specific compounds disclosed include: 1-[1-(4-chlorophenyl)cyclopropyl]-2-methyl-3-(3-phenoxyphenyl)propan-2-ol; 1-[1-(4-chlorophenyl)cyclopropyl]-2-(3-phenoxyphenyl)ethan-1-ol; 1-[1-(4-chlorophenyl)cyclopropyl]-3-(3-phenoxyphenyl)propan-2-ol; 4-(4-ethoxyphenyl)-4-methyl-1-(3-phenoxyphenyl)pentan-2-ol; 4-(4-chlorophenyl)-4-methyl-1-(3-phenoxyphenyl)pentan-2-ol; and (E)-4-(4-chlorophenyl)-3,4-dimethyl-1-(3-phenoxyphenyl)pent-1-en-3-ol. Baydar et al. is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety.
A compound that is found to interact with the glucocorticoid receptor in a binding assay could be an agonist or an antagonist. The agonist properties of the compound could be evaluated in the transactivation or transrepression assays described above. Given the efficacy demonstrated by available glucocorticoid drugs in inflammatory and immune diseases and their adverse side effects, there remains a need for novel glucocorticoid receptor agonists with selectivity over other members of the steroid receptor family and a dissociation of the transactivation and transrepression activities. Alternatively, the compound may be found to have antagonist activity. As mentioned above, glucocorticoids stimulate glucose production in the liver. Increased glucose production induced by glucocorticoid excess can exacerbate existing diabetes, or trigger latent diabetes. Thus a ligand for the glucocorticoid receptor that is found to be an antagonist may be useful, inter alia, for treating or preventing diabetes.